Be Smart !

C、第二篇長跑練習精華整理

2008-12-04T04:13:00.000-08:00

原文：http://www.marathon.org.tw/news92/news0212.htm

C、第二篇長跑練習精華整理

　　假如您的名字叫做”松”，對本篇內容融會貫通後，保證您有個愉悅的馬拉松。假如您還像宮本卵佐前輩一樣在維護古蹟，事情將會倒過來，叫做松拉馬，油麻菜花田、太魯閣的美景對您一點兒意義也沒有，您還是被栓在陰暗的跑步機上。

乳酸門檻介紹

前面說過馬拉松卡住的情形和跑5000公尺賽程的最後1、2公里中出現腳無力、腿抬不起來的情況有些類似。肌肉和血液裡堆積的乳酸阻斷了供氧，在含氧量不足的情況下，自然無法發揮應有的水準，也就是說，產生的乳酸比消除的還多時，乳酸就開始堆積，跑得愈快、乳酸也會更加快速產生和堆積。相同條件的人，乳酸門檻不同，實力就會有差距，誠然就是因為這種緣故。與大家所認為的相反，乳酸是氧氣在體內新陳代謝的產物，縱使您處於休息時也會繼續產生，問題在於您是否能快速把他清除，每一個人乳酸值的產生、堆積、清除的能力，都是由他們自己身體的經驗不同而有所差異。所以，您的目標就是要讓您的身體去經歷乳酸值的產生、堆積、清除，使他們能夠作有效率的組合──產生少、堆積慢、消除快。

　　對有經驗的跑者來說，乳酸門檻的速度大約與您15公里或半馬的比賽速度相同，在練習時您稍稍加快些，稍快於您的乳酸門檻速度，將大大提昇您五公里或更長距離的實力。善於開發掌握自己的乳酸門檻是您將15k、半馬、馬拉松提昇至顛峰的主要關鍵。

　　雖然這些說法已經在全世界風行了十幾年，但是對國內來說還是相當陌生，拜網路之便，隨手即可得數百篇論述及相關介紹。經過親身體驗及過濾整理後提供給各位參考，因為每個人體質不同，如需更精進的方法，建議您請專業的教練指導。最重要的事，不要讓自己受傷。

幾種錯誤的練習方法

1. LSD練習跑得太快── 只會增加您的疲勞，影響您下次的訓練計劃，徒勞無功。
2. LT-pace練習跑得太快或太慢── 您必須用您自己的乳酸門檻進行練習，如果勉強配合同伴的速度，太快或太慢，將無助於您的效力的提昇。
3. 需氧間歇練習快於您的實力── 練習的目標是在於刺激出適應您希望的需氧配速，並非是增進速度的唯一方法。所以，練習比您實力還快的速度，只會增加腿部無端的疲勞，或是增加受傷的機會。
4. 缺乏任何速度練習前的輕鬆跑── 對於長距離跑的跑者而言，要達到較高的速度練習時一定要用循序漸進的方式，高樓平地起。準備工作不足是無法駕駑高強度的順暢，反而更易於使身體受傷，因為強度練習的受傷機會比距離的練習更大。
5. 跑得太多太緊密── 原因只有一個，您的身體需要休息，為了使您的身體能適應份量重的練習，您只能做休息或輕鬆跑來為下一次的強度練習做準備，才能成為較好的跑者。跑得太多太緊密的結果是蹂躪您的肌肉、擾亂您的賀爾蒙系統和瓦解您的免疫系統。

遠離跑步傷害的方法

1. 有一些人天生不帕受傷，縱使同伴發現已經一拐一拐，計劃的路程再苦也會完成。這是最要不得的。
2. 每天於訓練前後的伸展可以幫助您增進您的肌肉彈性及擺動空間，防止可能的傷害。
3. 全身各部位體力增強訓練，可穩固您的力量減少受傷機會，不過這是需要經過較嚴厲的跑步訓練課程才得以達成。
4. 吃營養一些，可讓身體獲得更多效率的恢復及休息。
5. 降低壓力，高壓力會減弱您身體自身的復原能力。
6. 要學會聽自己身體的聲音，尤其使在作強度和長距離量的訓練時。
7. 量和速度的增加，每週不可超過10%，這是全球的名言。
8. 強度訓練是兩面刃，提昇速度相對增加受傷機會，選擇聰明的訓練法是很重要的，強度訓練後一定安排輕鬆跑，也就是Hard----Easy---Hard---Easy的搭配方式進行練習。

長跑常用必知的關鍵字

Easy run：輕鬆跑──以五千公尺能力而言，可輕鬆維持30分鐘。以馬拉松跑者來說，一、兩小時以上都沒問題。輕鬆到說話也不喘，找個人聊聊。
Recover Run：恢復跑──強度練習前後一日的休息慢跑。
Proper pace：適度跑──不能強調量和強度的有氧跑。

具強度的
Long, Slow Distance (LSD)：長距離慢跑。
Fartlek：法特雷克跑法
Tempo Run：節奏跑法
Steady Run：定速跑法
LT-pace= Lactate Threshold Run：乳酸門檻跑法
Cruise interval：巡航間歇跑法
VO2max Threshold：攝氧量門檻跑法
Threshold Pace：門檻配速
LTHR：乳酸門檻心跳
Aerobic interval：有氧間歇
Repeat：反覆跑
Interval：間歇
VO2max：最大攝氧量
Turnover Run：跨步跑
Hill Run：山坡跑
Endurance Training：耐力訓練
Base Training：基礎訓練
Current 5K race pace：現在五千公尺比賽配速
Heart rate monitor：心跳監視器
Current 10K race pace：現在一萬公尺比賽配速

個別練習的方法的介紹

LSD:
　　一般來說，長距離跑可以帶給您增進耐力及整體儲存豐足能量的能力，所以理想的LSD應該比一週內任何的練習距離長一點五倍到兩倍，最好能超過15公里以上。您只要維持比馬拉松比賽速度的每公里慢約30秒至40秒，或比您十公里速度的每公里慢約50秒至60秒或用您最大心跳的65- 80%或每公里慢55秒至75秒於您現在五千公尺的實力。這樣的練習速度，快得可以讓您獲得生理上的助益，又慢得夠讓您有足夠的快速恢復，讓您應付往後兩三天的強度練習。，從事長距離輕鬆舒適的慢跑。主要的好處有一

增加您肌肉內微血毛細管的量(size)及密度。
增加您線粒體(Mitochondria)的數量和尺寸。
增加您的紅血球和血紅素的集中和提高血液量。
增加您的肌肉從血液中的攝氧能力。
增強您肌肉儲存碳水化物和依賴脂肪燃料的能力。

Tempo Run/ LT-Pace:

　　是提昇乳酸門檻其中最好的方法，通常用您15公里的比賽速度，練習約20至30分鐘或40分鐘，大約是六到九公里的距離，或者用您最大心跳的80-90%或每公里慢約20秒於您現在五千公尺的實力，持續6-7公里或者1600公尺的反覆跑(中間只休息1到2分鐘) ，您將會得到最佳的穩定跑(steady Run)的助益，剛開始的一兩公里稍快些，然後放慢回來定速穩固跑。這時您應該會很辛苦又很舒服的感覺，想放棄但又可以持續下去，假如每公里的速度稍增加了五、六秒，您可能撐不了幾分鐘。如果您練習完的幾天腿會感覺酸痛，表示您的練習速度太快了，降回來，這樣跑對您沒有任何幫助可言。距離較強烈舒適地乳酸門檻練習跑主要的功用在於一一提昇您的乳酸門檻。當您再做上述的強度練習時，乳酸和體內質體組織會開始在肌肉和血液中快速推積，阻斷您肌肉的動力源。所以，提高您的乳酸門檻後，可讓您在疲勞前跑得更快更遠。很迷人吧！

Cruise Interval:

　　這種方法與Tempo Run一樣是為了提昇乳酸門檻，原是一項混合於游泳練習的方法，有一位專家把他與出自瑞典名師Sjodin的Broken Threshold Pace 結合後的一種練習方法，獲得了不少的認同。用您的門檻速度持續跑三到十分鐘，每趟休息一分鐘(或少於)，這裡所定義門檻速度是以您現在十公里的速度，每公里慢約五到十秒鐘。比Tempo Run輕鬆些，而Tempo Run則是以這種速度持續跑二十到四十分鐘。這種練習強度已經被證實非常適用於各種實力和年齡的跑者。當您練習環境改變了，如天氣太熱等時，Cruise interval是維持Tempo Run的好方法，用您LT的速度2400公尺三趟，或1200公尺六趟，中間400公尺慢跑。

間歇練習(Interval)

　　用上您95-100%的最大心跳率，或者現在五千公尺實力(或稍快些)辛苦地跑兩到八分鐘，兩趟之間加上一樣時間(或稍短些)的休息。能夠帶給您──增加您的最大耗氧量，因為這個練習可以增加您的左心房的功能，進而在每一次心跳及每一分鐘心臟興奮出力時增加左心房的血液供給量。同時，您的靜脈血液回流也增強了，您的心肌也會變得更強力了。
　　另一種間歇練習，是幾乎全開的速度跑30秒到兩分鐘，每趟之間休息兩倍的時間，這樣能夠增加您肌肉纖維在快速抽動時的補給速度，增強您容忍和緩衝減少肌肉酸中毒的能力。
　　還有一種稱為Cruise Interval，原是一項混合於游泳練習的方法，有一位專家把他與出自瑞典名師Sjodin的Broken Threshold Pace 結合後的一種練習方法，這種方法與Tempo Run一樣是為了提昇乳酸門檻，和這裡的間歇練習不同。

VO2Max:

　　VO2Max是測量您的最大呼吸氧的容量的有氧練習，是一種非常重要的生理特徵，對於十公里或更短以內距離的幫助效果特別顯著，因為五公里、十公里的速度是直接反映在馬拉松的成績上。一般來說3000、5000公尺比賽時，將會達到VO2Max。練這個的方法應該非常精細的算準您5000公尺實力的範圍，切記配速太快將徒勞無功，轉而增加您的無氧能力，祇對中距離跑有效而已。這是為什麼我們要大家一定要參加5000公尺場地賽競技的最主要目的之一。所以，通常使用2至6分鐘的5000公尺配速反覆跑，也就是說國內很多跑者習慣於400公尺的間歇跑，對增進VOMax非常有限，最好的是大約1000公尺至2000公尺的距離較能增進5000公尺或更長的實力。如：1200公尺五到六趟，中間恢復休息時間為您閒歇時間的一半和百分之九十，切記！休息時間不足又將會轉到無氧去了，這是要非常注意的事情，最好有教練或同伴來監控您的時間和速度。

坡度: Hill Run

　　全開上坡，慢跑或用走的下坡兼休息，多跑多獲益，不傷身，但傷心。但是很踏實增強了您的四頭肌、小腿部、臀部、屈肌和臀肌肉使用技巧的強度和力量。不僅如此，它是最能增進您的跑步經濟效益，尤其是在速度的保持上最為顯著。

法特雷克:Fartlek

　　這是速度的玩法，練習中距離跑(三到十二公里)時，使用以上的跑法做組合，照單全收一次做完距離、各種強度練習、休息跑‧‧等等。好處是讓身體適應不同的跑步強度環境和提供較有趣的練習情境不至於單調乏味。

Turnover Run:推進速度練習

　　主要為了要提高您的基本速度，增加兩腿交換的效率，20-30公尺衝刺跑10趟，100公尺跨步跑12趟或200快速跑8趟，一個禮拜最少練一次，可於輕鬆跑後來做，但是不要在強度練習和LSD的同一天的前後練習。

　

Israel

2008-12-03T04:26:00.000-08:00

Israel officially the State of Israel , is a country in Western Asia located on the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan in the east, and Egypt on the southwest, and contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area.[5] The West Bank and Gaza Strip are also adjacent. With a population of about 7.28 million,[3] the majority of whom are Jews, Israel is the world's only Jewish state.[6] It is also home to other ethnic groups, including most numerously Arab citizens of Israel, as well as many religious groups including Muslims, Christians, Druze, Samaritans and others.

The modern state of Israel has its roots in the Land of Israel (Eretz Yisrael), a concept central to Judaism for over 3,000 years[7], and the heartland of the ancient Kingdom of Judah to which modern Jews are usually attributed. After World War I, the League of Nations approved the British Mandate of Palestine with the intent of creating a "national home for the Jewish people."[8] In 1947, the United Nations approved the partition of Palestine into two states, one Jewish and one Arab.[9] On May 14, 1948 the state of Israel declared independence and this was followed by a war with the surrounding Arab states, which refused to accept the plan. The Israelis were subsequently victorious in a series of wars confirming their independence and expanding the borders of the Jewish state beyond those in the UN Partition Plan. Since then, Israel has been in conflict with many of the neighboring Arab countries, resulting in several major wars and decades of violence that continue to this day.[10] Since its foundation, Israel's boundaries and even the State's very right to exist have been subject to dispute, especially among its Arab neighbors. Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, and efforts are being made to reach a permanent accord with the Palestinians.[11]

Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system and universal suffrage.[12][13] The Prime Minister serves as head of government and the Knesset serves as Israel's legislative body. In terms of nominal gross domestic product, the nation's economy is estimated as being the 44th-largest in the world.[14] Israel ranks high among Middle Eastern countries on the bases of human development,[15] freedom of the press,[16] and economic competitiveness.[17] Jerusalem is the country's capital, seat of government, and largest city, while Israel's main financial center is Tel Aviv.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
o 2.1 Early roots
o 2.2 Zionism and the British Mandate
o 2.3 Independence and first years
o 2.4 Conflicts and peace treaties
* 3 Geography and climate
* 4 Government and politics
o 4.1 Administrative districts
o 4.2 Occupied territories
o 4.3 Foreign relations
* 5 Military
* 6 Economy
* 7 Science and education
* 8 Demographics
o 8.1 Religion
* 9 Culture
* 10 Sports
* 11 References
* 12 Bibliography
* 13 External links

Etymology

Over the past three thousand years, the name "Israel" has meant in common and religious usage both the Land of Israel and the entire Jewish nation.[18] According to the Bible, Jacob is renamed Israel after successfully wrestling with an angel of God.[19]

The earliest archaeological artifact to mention "Israel" (other than as a personal name) is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt (dated the late 13th century BCE), where it refers to the people of the land.[20] The modern country was named Medinat Yisrael, or the State of Israel, after other proposed names, including Eretz Israel ("the Land of Israel"), Zion, and Judea, were rejected.[21] In the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term "Israeli" to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett.[22]

History

Main articles: History of Israel and History of the Jews in the Land of Israel

Early roots

Further information: History of ancient Israel and Judah

Roman garrison ruins at the foot of Masada

The Land of Israel, known in Hebrew as Eretz Yisrael, has been sacred to the Jewish people since Biblical times. According to the Torah, the Land of Israel was promised to the three Patriarchs of the Jewish people, by God, as their homeland;[23][24] scholars have placed this period in the early 2nd millennium BCE.[25] According to the traditional view, around the 11th century BCE, the first of a series of Israelite kingdoms and states established rule over the region; these Israelite kingdoms and states ruled intermittently for the following one thousand years.[26] The sites holiest to Judaism are located within Israel.

Between the time of the Israelite kingdoms and the 7th-century Muslim conquests, the Land of Israel fell under Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek, Roman, Sassanian, and Byzantine rule.[27] Jewish presence in the region dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE and the resultant large-scale expulsion of Jews. In 628/9, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius conducted a massacre and expulsion of the Jews, at which point the Jewish population probably reached its lowest point. Nevertheless, a continuous Jewish presence in the Land of Israel remained. Although the main Jewish population shifted from the Judea region to the Galilee,[28] the Mishnah and part of the Talmud, among Judaism's most important religious texts, were composed in Israel during this period.[29] The Land of Israel was captured from the Byzantine Empire around 636 CE during the initial Muslim conquests. Control of the region transferred between the Umayyads,[30] Abbasids,[31] and Crusaders over the next six centuries, before falling in the hands of the Mamluk Sultanate, in 1260. In 1516, the Land of Israel became a part of the Ottoman Empire, which ruled the region until the 20th century.[32]

Zionism and the British Mandate
Aliyah to Israel and settlement
Pre-Zionist Aliyah
The Return to Zion ‧ The Old Yishuv
Prior to the founding of Israel
First Aliyah ‧ Second Aliyah ‧ During WWI ‧ Third Aliyah ‧ Fourth Aliyah ‧ Fifth Aliyah ‧ During and after WWII ‧ Berihah
After the founding of Israel
Operation Magic Carpet ‧ Operation Ezra and Nehemiah ‧ Jewish exodus from Arab lands ‧ Polish aliyah in 1968 ‧ Aliyah from the Soviet Union in the 1970s ‧ Aliyah from Ethiopia ‧ Aliyah from the Commonwealth of Independent States in the 1990s ‧ Aliyah from Latin America in the 2000s
Concepts
Judaism ‧ Zionism ‧ Law of Return ‧ Jewish homeland ‧ Yerida ‧ Galut ‧ Jewish Messianism
Persons and organizations
Theodor Herzl ‧ World Zionist Organization ‧ Knesset ‧ Nefesh B'Nefesh ‧ Oleh ‧ El Al
Related topics
Jewish history ‧ Jewish diaspora ‧ History of the Jews in the Land of Israel ‧ Yishuv ‧ History of Zionism ‧ History of Israel ‧ Timeline of Zionism ‧ Revival of Hebrew language ‧ Religious Zionism ‧ Haredim and Zionism ‧ Anti-Zionism
v ‧ d ‧ e

Main articles: History of Zionism and British Mandate of Palestine

Jews living in the Diaspora have long aspired to return to Zion and the Land of Israel.[33] That hope and yearning was articulated in the Bible,[34] and is a central theme in the Jewish prayer book. Beginning in the 12th century, Catholic persecution of Jews led to a steady stream leaving Europe to settle in the Holy Land, increasing in numbers after Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492.[35] During the 16th century large communities struck roots in the Four Holy Cities, and in the second half of the 18th century, entire Hasidic communities from eastern Europe settled in the Holy Land.[36]
Theodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish State, in 1901.

The first large wave of modern immigration, known as the First Aliyah (Hebrew: ?????), began in 1881, as Jews fled pogroms in Eastern Europe.[37] While the Zionist movement already existed in theory, Theodor Herzl is credited with founding political Zionism,[38] a movement which sought to establish a Jewish state in the Land of Israel, by elevating the Jewish Question to the international plane.[39] In 1896, Herzl published Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State), offering his vision of a future state; the following year he presided over the first World Zionist Congress.[40]

The Second Aliyah (1904–1914), began after the Kishinev pogrom. Some 40,000 Jews settled in Palestine.[37] Both the first and second waves of migrants were mainly Orthodox Jews,[41] but those in the Second Aliyah included socialist pioneers who established the kibbutz movement.[42] During World War I, British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour issued what became known as the Balfour Declaration, which "view[ed] with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people."[43] The Jewish Legion, a group of battalions composed primarily of Zionist volunteers, assisted in the British conquest of Palestine. Arab opposition to the plan led to the 1920 Palestine riots and the formation of the Jewish organization known as the Haganah (meaning "The Defense" in Hebrew), from which the Irgun and Lehi split off.[44]

In 1922, the League of Nations granted the United Kingdom a mandate over Palestine for the express purpose of "placing the country under such political, administrative and economic conditions as will secure the establishment of the Jewish national home".[45] The population of the area at this time was predominantly Muslim Arab, while the largest urban area in the region, Jerusalem, was predominantly Jewish.[46]

Jewish immigration continued with the Third Aliyah (1919–1923) and Fourth Aliyah (1924–1929), which together brought 100,000 Jews to Palestine.[37] In the wake of the Jaffa riots in the early days of the Mandate, the British restricted Jewish immigration and territory slated for the Jewish state was allocated to Transjordan.[47] The rise of Nazism in the 1930s led to the Fifth Aliyah, with an influx of a quarter of a million Jews. This influx resulted in the Arab revolt of 1936–1939 and led the British to cap immigration with the White Paper of 1939. With countries around the world turning away Jewish refugees fleeing the Holocaust, a clandestine movement known as Aliyah Bet was organized to bring Jews to Palestine.[37] By the end of World War II, Jews accounted for 33% of the population of Palestine, up from 11% in 1922.[48][49]

Independence and first years
David Ben-Gurion proclaiming Israeli independence from the United Kingdom on May 14, 1948 below a portrait of Theodor Herzl

Main articles: 1948 Palestine war and Declaration of Independence (Israel)

After 1945 the United Kingdom became embroiled in an increasingly violent conflict with the Jews.[50] In 1947, the British government withdrew from commitment to the Mandate of Palestine, stating it was unable to arrive at a solution acceptable to both Arabs and Jews.[51] The newly created United Nations approved the UN Partition Plan (United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181) on November 29, 1947, dividing the country into two states, one Arab and one Jewish. Jerusalem was to be designated an international city – a corpus separatum – administered by the UN to avoid conflict over its status.[52] The Jewish community accepted the plan,[53] but the Arab League and Arab Higher Committee rejected it.[54]

Regardless, the State of Israel was proclaimed on May 14, 1948, one day before the expiry of the British Mandate for Palestine.[55] Not long after, five Arab countries – Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Iraq – attacked Israel, launching the 1948 Arab-Israeli War,[55] although conflict between the Jews and Arabs of Palestine started earlier. After a year of fighting, a ceasefire was declared and temporary borders, known as the Green Line, were established. Jordan annexed what became known as the West Bank and East Jerusalem, and Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip. Israel was admitted as a member of the United Nations on May 11, 1949.[56] During the war 711,000 Arabs, according to UN estimates, or about 80% of the previous Arab population, fled the country.[57] The fate of the Palestinian refugees today is a major point of contention in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.[58][59]

In the early years of the state, the Labor Zionist movement led by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion dominated Israeli politics.[60][61] These years were marked by mass immigration of Holocaust survivors and an influx of Jews persecuted in Arab lands. The population of Israel rose from 800,000 to two million between 1948 and 1958.[62] Most arrived as refugees with no possessions and were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot. By 1952, over 200,000 immigrants were living in these tent cities. The need to solve the crisis led Ben-Gurion to sign a reparations agreement with West Germany that triggered mass protests by Jews angered at the idea of Israel "doing business" with Germany.[63]

During the 1950s, Israel was frequently attacked by Palestinian fedayeen, mainly from the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip.[64] In 1956, Israel joined a secret alliance with The United Kingdom and France aimed at recapturing the Suez Canal, which the Egyptians had nationalized (see the Suez Crisis). Despite capturing the Sinai Peninsula, Israel was forced to retreat due to pressure from the United States and the Soviet Union in return for guarantees of Israeli shipping rights in the Red Sea and the Canal.[65]

At the start of the following decade, Israel captured Adolf Eichmann, an architect of the Final Solution hiding in Argentina, and brought him to trial.[66] The trial had a major impact on public awareness of the Holocaust,[67] and to date Eichmann remains the only person executed by Israel[68], although John Demjanjuk was sentenced to die before his conviction was overturned by the Supreme Court of Israel[69].

Conflicts and peace treaties

Main articles: Arab-Israeli conflict and Israeli-Palestinian conflict

Arab countries over the years refused to acknowledge Israel's right to exist, and Arab nationalists led by Nasser called for the destruction of the state.[70] In 1967, Egypt, Syria, and Jordan massed troops close to Israeli borders, expelled UN peacekeepers and blocked Israel's access to the Red Sea. Israel saw these actions as a casus belli for a pre-emptive strike that launched the Six-Day War, Israel achieved a decisive victory in which it captured the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights.[71] The 1949 Green Line became the administrative boundary between Israel and the occupied territories. Jerusalem's boundaries were enlarged, incorporating East Jerusalem. The Jerusalem Law, passed in 1980, reaffirmed this measure and reignited international controversy over the status of Jerusalem.
Prime Minister Golda Meir, who resigned following the Yom Kippur War

The failure of the Arab states in the 1967 war led to the rise of Arab non-state actors in the conflict, most importantly the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) which was committed to what it called "armed struggle as the only way to liberate the homeland".[72][73] In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Palestinian groups launched a wave of attacks[74] against Israeli targets around the world,[75] including a massacre of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Summer Olympics. Israel responded with Operation Wrath of God, in which those responsible for the Munich massacre were tracked down and assassinated.[76]

On October 6, 1973, Yom Kippur, the holiest day in the Jewish calendar, the Egyptian and Syrian armies launched a surprise attack against Israel. The war ended on October 26 with Israel successfully repelling Egyptian and Syrian forces but suffering great losses.[77] An internal inquiry exonerated the government of responsibility for the war, but public anger forced Prime Minister Golda Meir to resign.

The 1977 Knesset elections marked a major turning point in Israeli political history as Menachem Begin's Likud party took control from the Labor Party.[78] Later that year, Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat made a trip to Israel and spoke before the Knesset in what was the first recognition of Israel by an Arab head of state.[79] In the two years that followed, Sadat and Menachem Begin signed the Camp David Accords and the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.[80] Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula and agreed to enter negotiations over an autonomy for Palestinians across the Green Line, a plan which was never implemented. Begin's government encouraged Israelis to settle in the West Bank, leading to friction with the Palestinians in those areas.

On June 7, 1981, Israel heavily bombed Iraq's Osirak nuclear reactor in Operation Opera, disabling it. Israeli intelligence had suspected Iraq was intending to use it for weapons development. In 1982, Israel intervened in the Lebanese Civil War to destroy the bases from which the Palestine Liberation Organization launched attacks and missiles at northern Israel. That move developed into the First Lebanon War.[81] Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1986, but maintained a borderland buffer zone until 2000. The First Intifada, a Palestinian uprising against Israeli rule,[82] broke out in 1987 with waves of violence occurring in the occupied territories. Over the following six years, more than a thousand people were killed in the ensuing violence, much of which was internal Palestinian violence.[83] During the 1991 Gulf War, the PLO and many Palestinians supported Saddam Hussein and Iraqi missile attacks against Israel.[84][85]
Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat shake hands, presided over by Bill Clinton, at the signing of the Oslo Accords, September 13, 1993

In 1992, Yitzhak Rabin became Prime Minister following an election in which his party promoted compromise with Israel's neighbors.[86][87] The following year, Shimon Peres and Mahmoud Abbas, on behalf of Israel and the PLO, signed the Oslo Accords, which gave the Palestinian National Authority the right to self-govern parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[88] A declared intent was recognition of Israel's right to exist and an end to terrorism.[89] In 1994, the Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace was signed, making Jordan the second Arab country to normalize relations with Israel.[90]

Arab public support for the Accords was damaged by the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre, continuation of settlements,[91] and checkpoints, and the deterioration of economic conditions. Israeli public support for the Accords waned as Israel was struck by Palestinian suicide attacks. The November 1995 assassination of Yitzhak Rabin by a far-right-wing Jew, as he left a peace rally, shocked the country.

At the end of the 1990s, Israel, under the leadership of Benjamin Netanyahu, withdrew from Hebron,[92] and signed the Wye River Memorandum, giving greater control to the Palestinian National Authority.[93]

Ehud Barak, elected Prime Minister in 1999, began the new millennium by withdrawing forces from Southern Lebanon and conducting negotiations with Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat and U.S. President Bill Clinton at the July 2000 Camp David Summit. During the summit, Barak offered a plan for the establishment of a Palestinian state, but Yasser Arafat rejected it.[94] After the collapse of the talks, the Second Intifada began.

Ariel Sharon became the new prime minister in a 2001 special election. During his tenure, Sharon carried out his plan to unilaterally withdraw from the Gaza Strip and also spearheaded the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier.[95] In January 2006, after Ariel Sharon suffered a severe stroke which left him in a coma, the powers of office were transferred to Ehud Olmert.

In July 2006, a Hezbollah artillery assault on Israel's northern border communities and a cross border abduction of two Israeli soldiers sparked the Second Lebanon War.[96][97] The clashes were brought to end a month later by a ceasefire (United Nations Resolution 1701) brokered by the United Nations Security Council.

On November 27, 2007, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert and Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas agreed to negotiate on all issues and strive for an agreement by the end of 2008. In April 2008, Syrian President Bashar Al Assad told a Qatari newspaper that Syria and Israel had been discussing a peace treaty for a year, with Turkey as a go-between. This was confirmed by Israel in May 2008.[98]

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Israel

The central Judean Mountains

Israel is located at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, bounded by Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan to the east, and Egypt to the southwest. The sovereign territory of Israel, excluding all territories captured by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War, is approximately 20,770 square kilometers (8,019 sq mi) in area, of which two percent is water.[2] The total area under Israeli law, including East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, is 22,072 square kilometers (8,522 sq mi).[99]

The total area under Israeli control, including the military-controlled and partially Palestinian-governed territory of the West Bank, is 27,799 square kilometers (10,733 sq mi).[100]
The Jordan river

Despite its small size, Israel is home to a variety of geographic features, from the Negev desert in the south to the mountain ranges of the Galilee, Carmel, and the Golan in the north. The Israeli Coastal Plain on the shores of the Mediterranean is home to seventy percent of the nation's population.

East of the central highlands lies the Jordan Rift Valley, which forms a small part of the 6,500-kilometer (4,040-mi) Great Rift Valley. The Jordan River runs along the Jordan Rift Valley, from Mount Hermon through the Hulah Valley and the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, the lowest point on the surface of the Earth.[101] Further south is the Arabah, ending with the Gulf of Eilat, part of the Red Sea.
An oasis in the Judean Desert.

Unique to Israel and the Sinai Peninsula are makhteshim, or erosion cirques.[102] The largest makhtesh in the world is Ramon Crater in the Negev,[103] which measures 40 kilometers by 8 kilometers (25 mi by 5 mi).[104] A report on the environmental status of the Mediterranean basin states that Israel has the largest number of plant species per square meter of all the countries in the basin.[105]

Temperatures in Israel vary widely, especially during the winter. The more mountainous regions can be windy, cold, and sometimes snowy; Mount Hermon's peak is covered with snow most of the year and Jerusalem usually receives at least one snowfall each year.[106] Meanwhile, coastal cities, such as Tel Aviv and Haifa, have a typical Mediterranean climate with cool, rainy winters and long, hot summers. The highest temperature in the continent of Asia (53.7°C or 129 °F) was recorded in 1942 at Tirat Zvi kibbutz in the northern parts of the Jordan-valley.[107] From May to September, rain in Israel is rare.[108][109] With scarce water resources, Israel has developed various water-saving technologies, including drip irrigation.[110] Israelis also take advantage of the considerable sunlight available for solar energy, making Israel the leading nation in solar energy use per capita.[111]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Israel

The Knesset building, home of the Israeli parliament

Israel operates under a parliamentary system as a democratic country with universal suffrage.[2] The President of Israel is the head of state, but his duties are largely ceremonial.[112] A Parliament Member supported by a majority in parliament becomes the Prime Minister, usually the chairman of the largest party. The Prime Minister is the head of government and head of the Cabinet.[112][113] Israel is governed by a 120-member parliament, known as the Knesset. Membership in the Knesset is based on proportional representation of political parties.[114] Parliamentary elections are held every four years, but the Knesset can dissolve the government at any time by a no-confidence vote. The Basic Laws of Israel function as an unwritten constitution. In 2003, the Knesset began to draft an official constitution based on these laws.[2][115]
Sister project Wikinews has related news: Shimon Peres discusses the future of Israel
Office of the President of Israel in 2007.

Israel has a three-tier court system. At the lowest level are magistrate courts, situated in most cities across the country. Above them are district courts, serving both as appellate courts and courts of first instance; they are situated in five of Israel's six districts. The third and highest tier in Israel is the Supreme Court, seated in Jerusalem. It serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and the High Court of Justice. In the latter role, the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, allowing individuals, both citizens and non-citizens, to petition against decisions of state authorities.[116][117] Israel is not a member of the International Criminal Court as it fears the court would be biased against it due to political pressure.[118] Israel's legal system combines English common law, civil law, and Jewish law.[2] It is based on the principle of stare decisis (precedent) and is an adversarial system, where the parties in the suit bring evidence before the court. Court cases are decided by professional judges rather than juries.[116] Marriage and divorce are under the jurisdiction of the religious courts: Jewish, Muslim, Druze, and Christian. A committee of Knesset members, Supreme Court justices, and Israeli Bar members carries out the election of judges.[119]
Districts of Israel: (1) Northern, (2) Haifa, (3) Center, (4) Tel Aviv, (5) Jerusalem, (6) Southern

Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty seeks to defend human rights and liberties in Israel. Israel is the only country in the region ranked "Free" by Freedom House based on the level of civil and political rights; the "Israeli Occupied Territories/Palestinian Authority" was ranked "Not Free."[120] Similarly, Reporters Without Borders rated Israel 50th out of 168 countries in terms of freedom of the press and highest among Southwest Asian countries.[121] Nevertheless, groups such as Amnesty International[122] and Human Rights Watch[123] have often disapproved of Israel's human rights record in regards to the Arab-Israeli conflict. Israel's civil liberties also allow for self-criticism, from groups such as B'Tselem, an Israeli human rights organization.[124] Israel's system of socialized medicine, which guarantees equal health care to all residents of the country, was anchored in law in 1995.[125]
Administrative districts

Main articles: Districts of Israel and List of cities in Israel

The State of Israel is divided into six main administrative districts, known as mehozot (??????; singular: mahoz) – Center, Haifa, Jerusalem, North, Southern, and Tel Aviv Districts. Districts are further divided into fifteen sub-districts known as nafot (????; singular: nafa), which are themselves partitioned into fifty natural regions.[126] For statistical purposes, the country is divided into three metropolitan areas: Tel Aviv and Gush Dan (population 3,150,000), Haifa (population 996,000), and Beersheba (population 531,600).[127] Israel's largest city, both in population and area,[128] is Jerusalem with 732,100 residents in an area of 126 square kilometers (49 sq mi). Tel Aviv, Haifa, and Rishon LeZion rank as Israel's next most populous cities, with populations of 384,600, 267,000, and 222,300 respectively.[129]

Occupied territories

Main articles: Israeli-occupied territories and Political status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip

Map of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, 2007

The Israeli-occupied territories are the West Bank and East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights. They are areas Israel captured from Jordan, and Syria during the Six-Day War. The term was also used to describe the Sinai Peninsula, which was returned to Egypt as part of the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.

The term of 'Israeli-occupied territories' was also used to encompass the Gaza strip which was occupied by Egypt and captured by Israel in 1967. In 2005, Israel removed all of its residents and forces in the Gaza Strip and four settlements in the West Bank as part of its unilateral disengagement plan. Israel still controls Gaza's airspace and sea access. Israel also regulates Gaza's travel and trade with the rest of the world.[130] Inner control of the area is in the hands of the Hamas government.

Following Israel's capture of these territories, settlements consisting of Israeli citizens were established within each of them. Israel has applied civilian law to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, incorporating them into its territory and offering their inhabitants Israeli citizenship. In contrast, the West Bank has remained under military occupation, and is widely seen – by Israel, the Palestinians, and the international community alike – as the site of a future Palestinian state. Most negotiations relating to the territories have been on the basis of United Nations Security Council Resolution 242, which calls on Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in return for normalization of relations with Arab states, a principle known as "Land for peace".[131][132][133]

The West Bank has a population consisting primarily of Arab Palestinians, including historic residents of the territories and refugees of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.[134] From their occupation in 1967 until 1993, the Palestinians living in these territories were under Israeli military administration. Since the Israel-PLO letters of recognition, most of the Palestinian population and cities have been under the internal jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, and only partial Israeli military control, although Israel has on several occasions redeployed its troops and reinstated full military administration during periods of unrest. In response to increasing attacks as part of the Second Intifada, the Israeli government started to construct the Israeli West Bank barrier,[135] which opponents note is partially built within the West Bank.[136]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Israel

Chaim Weizmann, the first President of Israel, presenting U.S. President Harry S. Truman with a Torah scroll in 1948

Israel maintains diplomatic relations with 161 countries and has 94 diplomatic missions around the world.[137] Only three members of the Arab League have normalized relations with Israel; Egypt and Jordan signed peace treaties in 1979 and 1994, respectively, and Mauritania opted for full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1999. Two other members of the Arab League, Morocco and Tunisia, which had some diplomatic relations with Israel, severed them at the start of the Second Intifada in 2000.[138] Since 2003. Ties with Morocco have been on the upswing, and Israel's foreign minister has visited the country.[139] Under Israeli law, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Yemen are enemy countries[140] and Israeli citizens may not visit them without permission from the Ministry of the Interior.[141] Since 1995, Israel has been a member of the Mediterranean Dialogue, which fosters cooperation between seven countries in the Mediterranean Basin and the members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.[142]

The United States, Turkey, Germany, the United Kingdom and India are among Israel's closest allies. The United States was the first country to recognize the State of Israel, followed by the Soviet Union. It may regard Israel as its primary ally in Southwest Asia, based on shared political and religious values.[143] Although Turkey and Israel did not establish full diplomatic relations until 1991,[144] Turkey has cooperated with the State since its recognition of Israel in 1949. Turkey's ties to the other Muslim-majority nations in the region have at times resulted in pressure from Arab states to temper its relationship with Israel.[145] Germany's strong ties with Israel include cooperation on scientific and educational endeavors and the two states remain strong economic and military partners.[146][147] India established full diplomatic ties with Israel in 1992 and has fostered a strong military and cultural partnership with the country since then.[148] The UK has kept full diplomatic relations with Israel since its formation having had two visits from heads of state in 2007. It also has a strong trade relationship, Israel being the 23rd largest market. Relations between the two countries were also made stronger by former prime minister Tony Blair's efforts for a two state resolution. The UK is seen as having a "natural" relationship with Israel on account of the British Mandate of Palestine.[149] Iran had diplomatic relations with Israel under the Pahlavi dynasty[150] but withdrew its recognition of Israel during the Iranian Revolution.[151]

Military

Main articles: Israel Defense Forces and Israeli Security Forces

Israeli Air Force F-15 Strike Eagle
Israeli Army Merkava main battle tank

The Israel Defense Forces consists of the Israeli Army, Israeli Air Force and Israeli Sea Corps. It was founded during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War out of paramilitary organizations – chiefly the Haganah – that preceded the establishment of the state.[152] The IDF also draws upon the resources of the Military Intelligence Directorate (Aman), which works with the Mossad and Shabak.[153] The involvement of the Israel Defense Forces in major wars and border conflicts has made it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world.[154][155]

The majority of Israelis are drafted into the military at the age of eighteen. Men serve three years and women serve two years.[156] Following compulsory service, Israeli men join the reserve forces and do several weeks of reserve duty every year until their forties. Most women are exempt from reserve duty. Israeli Arabs (except the Druze) and those engaged in full-time religious studies are exempt from military service, although the exemption of yeshiva students has been a source of contention in Israeli society for many years.[157][158] An alternative for those who receive exemptions on various grounds is Sherut Leumi, or national service, which involves a program of service in hospitals, schools and other social welfare frameworks.[159] As a result of its conscription program, the IDF maintains approximately 168,000 active troops and an additional 408,000 reservists.[160]

The nation's military relies heavily on high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel as well as some foreign imports. The United States is a particularly notable foreign contributor; they are expected to provide the country with $30 billion in military aid between 2008 and 2017.[161] The Israeli- and U.S.-designed Arrow missile is one of the world's only operational anti-ballistic missile systems.[162] Since the Yom Kippur War, Israel has developed a network of reconnaissance satellites.[163] The success of the Ofeq program has made Israel one of seven countries capable of launching such satellites.[164] The country has also developed its own main battle tank, the Merkava. Since its establishment, Israel has spent a significant portion of its gross domestic product on defense. In 1984, for example, the country spent 24%[165] of its GDP on defense and offense. Today, that figure has dropped to 7.3%.[2]

Israel has not signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity toward its nuclear capabilities, though it is widely regarded as possessing nuclear weapons.[166] After the Gulf War in 1991, when Israel was attacked by Iraqi Scud missiles, a law was passed requiring all apartments and homes in Israel to have a mamad, a reinforced security room impermeable to chemical and biological substances.[167]

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Israel and Tourism in Israel

A main business district in Ramat Gan, where the diamond stock exchange is located

Israel is considered one of the most advanced countries in Southwest Asia in economic and industrial development. The country has been ranked highest in the region on the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business Index[168] as well as in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.[17] It has the second-largest number of startup companies in the world (after the United States) and the largest number of NASDAQ-listed companies outside North America.[169] In 2007, Israel had the 44th-highest gross domestic product and 22nd-highest gross domestic product per capita (at purchasing power parity) at US$232.7 billion and US$33,299, respectively.[170] In 2007, Israel was invited to join the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,[171] which promotes cooperation between countries that adhere to democratic principles and operate free market economies.[172]

Despite limited natural resources, intensive development of the agricultural and industrial sectors over the past decades has made Israel largely self-sufficient in food production, apart from grains and beef. Other major imports to Israel, totaling US$47.8 billion in 2006, include fossil fuels, raw materials, and military equipment.[2] Leading exports include fruits, vegetables, pharmaceuticals, software, chemicals, military technology, and diamonds; in 2006, Israeli exports reached US$42.86 billion.[2] Israel is a global leader in water conservation and geothermal energy,[173] and its development of cutting-edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences have evoked comparisons with Silicon Valley.[174][175] Intel[176] and Microsoft[177] built their first overseas research and development centers in Israel, and other high-tech multi-national corporations, such as IBM, Cisco Systems, and Motorola, have opened facilities in the country. In July 2007, U.S. billionaire Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway bought an Israeli company Iscar, its first non-U.S. acquisition, for $4 billion.[178] Since the 1970s, Israel has received economic aid from the United States, whose loans account for the bulk of Israel's external debt,[2] although that aid is expected to end in 2008.[161]

Tourism, especially religious tourism, is another important industry in Israel, with the country's temperate climate, beaches, archaeological and historical sites, and unique geography also drawing tourists. Israel's security problems have taken their toll on the industry, but the number of incoming tourists is on the rebound.[179]

Science and education

Main articles: Education in Israel, Science and technology in Israel, and List of universities and colleges in Israel

The particle accelerator at the Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot

Israel has the highest school life expectancy in Southwest Asia, and is tied with Japan for second-highest school life expectancy on the Asian continent (after South Korea).[180] Israel similarly has the highest literacy rate in Southwest Asia, according to the United Nations.[181] The State Education Law, passed in 1953, established five types of schools: state secular, state religious, ultra orthodox, communal settlement schools, and Arab schools. The public secular is the largest school group, and is attended by the majority of Jewish and non-Arab pupils in Israel. Most Arabs send their children to schools where Arabic is the language of instruction.[182]

Education is compulsory in Israel for children between the ages of three and eighteen.[183][184] Schooling is divided into three tiers – primary school (grades 1–6), middle school (grades 7–9), and high school (grades 10–12) – culminating with Bagrut matriculation exams. Proficiency in core subjects such as mathematics, Bible, Hebrew language, Hebrew and general literature, English, history, and civics is necessary to receive a Bagrut certificate.[185] In Arab, Christian and Druze schools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam in Islam, Christianity or Druze heritage.[186] In 2003, over half of all Israeli twelfth graders earned a matriculation certificate.[187]

Israel's eight public universities are subsidized by the state.[185][188] The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel's oldest university, houses the Jewish National and University Library, the world's largest repository of books on Jewish subjects.[189] In 2006, the Hebrew University was ranked 60th[190] and 119th[191] in two surveys of the world's top universities. Other major universities in the country include the Technion, the Weizmann Institute of Science, Tel Aviv University, Bar-Ilan University, the University of Haifa, and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. Israel's seven research universities (excluding the Open University) have been ranked in the top 500 in the world.[192] Israel ranks third in the world in the number of citizens who hold university degrees (20 percent of the population).[193][194] During the 1990s, an influx of a million immigrants from the former Soviet Union (forty percent of whom were university graduates) helped boost Israel's high-tech sector.[193] Israel has produced four Nobel Prize-winning scientists[195] and publishes among the most scientific papers per capita of any country in the world.[196][197] In 2003, Ilan Ramon became Israel's first astronaut, serving as payload specialist of STS-107, the fatal mission of the Space Shuttle Columbia.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Israel

As of 2008, Israel's population is 7.28 million.[3] Of those, over 260,000 Israeli citizens lived in the West Bank settlements[198][199][200] such as Ma'ale Adumim and Ariel, and communities that predated the establishment of the State but were re-established after the Six-Day War, in cities such as Hebron and Gush Etzion. 18,000 Israelis live in the Golan Heights.[201] In 2006, there were 250,000 Jews living in East Jerusalem.[202] The total number of Israeli settlers is over 500,000 (6.5 % of the Israeli population). Approximately 7,800 Israelis lived in settlements in the Gaza Strip until they were evacuated by the government as part of its 2005 disengagement plan.[203]

Israel has two official languages, Hebrew and Arabic.[2] Hebrew is the primary language of the state and spoken by the majority of the population. Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority and Jews who immigrated to Israel from Arab lands. Most Israelis can communicate reasonably well in English, as many television programs are in English and many schools begin to teach English in the early grades. As a country of immigrants, dozens of languages can be heard on the streets of Israel. A large influx of people from the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia have made Russian and Amharic widely spoken in Israel. Between 1990 and 1994, the immigration of Jews from the former Soviet Union increased Israel's population by twelve percent.[204] Over the last decade, immigration flows have also included significant numbers of workers from countries such as Romania, Thailand, China, and a number of countries in Africa and South America; gauging precise numbers is difficult because of the presence of "undocumented" immigrants, but estimates run in the region of 200,000.[205] Retention of Israel's population since 1948 is about even or greater, when compared to other countries with mass immigration.[206] Emigration from Israel (yerida) to other countries, primarily the United States and Canada, is described by demographers as modest[207] but is often cited by Israeli government ministries as a major threat to Israel's future.[208][209]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Israel

The Western Wall and the Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem

Israel was established as a homeland for the Jewish people and is often referred to as the Jewish state. The country's Law of Return grants all Jews and those of Jewish lineage the right to Israeli citizenship.[210] Just over three quarters, or 75.5%, of the population are Jews from a diversity of Jewish backgrounds. Approximately 68% of Israeli Jews are Israeli-born, 22% are immigrants from Europe and the Americas, and 10% are immigrants from Asia and Africa (including the Arab World).[211] The religious affiliation of Israeli Jews varies widely: 55% say they are "traditional," while 20% consider themselves "secular Jews," 17% define themselves as "Orthodox Jews"; the final 8% define themselves as "Haredi Jews."[212]
Baha'i World Centre in Haifa

Making up 16.2% of the population, Muslims constitute Israel's largest religious minority. Israeli Arabs, who comprise 19.8% of the population, contribute significantly to that figure as over four fifths (82.6%) of them are Muslim. Of the remaining Israeli Arabs, 8.8% are Christian and 8.4% are Druze.[213] Members of many other religious groups, including Buddhists and Hindus, maintain a presence in Israel, albeit in small numbers.[214] Christians make up 2.1% of the total population of Israel and consist of both Arab Christians and Messianic Jews.[215]

The city of Jerusalem enjoys a special place in the hearts of Jews, Muslims, and Christians as the home of sites that are pivotal to their religious beliefs, such as the Western Wall, the Temple Mount, the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Other landmarks of religious importance are located in the West Bank, among them the birthplace of Jesus and Rachel's Tomb in Bethlehem, and the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron. The administrative center of the Baha'i Faith and the Shrine of the Bab are located at the Baha'i World Centre in Haifa and the leader of the faith is buried in Acre. Apart from maintenance staff, there is no Baha'i community in Israel, although it is a destination for pilgrimages. Baha'i staff in Israel doesn't teach their faith to Israelis following strict policy.[216][217]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Israel

Hebrew Book Week 2005 in Jerusalem

Israel's diverse culture stems from the diversity of the population: Jews from around the world have brought their cultural and religious traditions with them, creating a melting pot of Jewish customs and beliefs.[218] Israel is the only country in the world where life revolves around the Hebrew calendar. Work and school holidays are determined by the Jewish holidays, and the official day of rest is Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath.[219] Israel's substantial Arab minority has also left its imprint on Israeli culture in such spheres as architecture,[220] music,[221] and cuisine.[222]

Israeli literature is primarily poetry and prose written in Hebrew, as part of the renaissance of Hebrew as a spoken language since the mid-19th century, although a small body of literature is published in other languages, such as Arabic and English. By law, two copies of all printed matter published in Israel must be deposited in the Jewish National and University Library at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 2001, the law was amended to include audio and video recordings, and other non-print media.[223] In 2006, 85 percent of the 8,000 books transferred to the library were in Hebrew.[224] The Hebrew Book Week (He: ???? ????) is held each June and features book fairs, public readings, and appearances by Israeli authors around the country. During the week, Israel's top literary award, the Sapir Prize, is presented. In 1966, Shmuel Yosef Agnon shared the Nobel Prize in Literature with German Jewish author Nelly Sachs.[225]
Batsheva Dance Company in Tel Aviv

Israeli music contains musical influences from all over the world; Yemenite music, Hasidic melodies, Arabic music, Greek music, jazz, and pop rock are all part of the music scene.[226][227] The nation's canonical folk songs, known as "Songs of the Land of Israel," deal with the experiences of the pioneers in building the Jewish homeland.[228] Among Israel's world-renowned[229] orchestras is the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, which has been in operation for over seventy years and today performs more than two hundred concerts each year.[230] Israel has also produced many musicians of note, some achieving international stardom. Itzhak Perlman, Pinchas Zukerman and Ofra Haza are among the internationally acclaimed musicians born in Israel. Israel has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest nearly every year since 1973, winning the competition three times and hosting it twice.[231] Eilat has hosted its own international music festival, the Red Sea Jazz Festival, every summer since 1987.[232] Continuing the strong theatrical traditions of the Yiddish theater in Eastern Europe, Israel maintains a vibrant theatre scene. Founded in 1918, Habima Theatre in Tel Aviv is Israel's oldest repertory theater company and national theater.[233] The Israel Museum in Jerusalem is one of Israel's most important cultural institutions[234] and houses the Dead Sea scrolls,[235] along with an extensive collection of Judaica and European art.[234] Israel's national Holocaust museum, Yad Vashem, houses the world's largest archive of Holocaust-related information.[236] Beth Hatefutsoth (the Diaspora Museum), on the campus of Tel Aviv University, is an interactive museum devoted to the history of Jewish communities around the world.[237] Apart from the major museums in large cities, there are high-quality artspaces in many towns and kibbutzim. Mishkan Le'Omanut on Kibbutz Ein Harod Meuhad is the largest art museum in the north of the country.[238]

Sports
Ramat Gan Stadium, Israel's largest stadium

Main article: Sports in Israel

Sports and physical fitness have not always been paramount in Jewish culture. Athletic prowess, which was prized by the ancient Greeks, was looked down upon as an unwelcome intrusion of Hellenistic values. Maimonides, who was both a rabbi and a physician, emphasized the importance of physical activity and keeping the body in shape. This approach received a boost in the 19th century from the physical culture campaign of Max Nordau, and in the early 20th century when the Chief Rabbi of Palestine, Abraham Isaac Kook, declared that "the body serves the soul, and only a healthy body can ensure a healthy soul".[239]

The Maccabiah Games, an Olympic-style event for Jewish athletes, was inaugurated in the 1930s, and has been held every four years since then. The most popular spectator sports in Israel today are association football and basketball.[240] In 1964 Israel hosted and won the Asian Nations Cup.

In the Seventies Israel was excluded from the 1978 Asian Games following the organizers' refusal to invite the country as a result of pressure by participating middle eastern countries. The exclusion led Israel to shift from Asia to Europe and cease competing in Asian competitions.[241] In 1994 UEFA agreed to admit Israel and all Israeli sporting organizations now compete in Europe. Ligat ha'Al is the country's premier soccer league, and Ligat HaAl is the premier basketball league.[242] Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. has won the European championship in basketball five times.[243]

Beersheba has become a national chess center and home to many chess champions from the former Soviet Union. The city hosted the World Team Chess Championship in 2005, and chess is taught in the city's kindergartens.[244] In 2007, an Israeli tied for second place in the World Chess Championship.[245]

To date, Israel has won seven Olympic medals since its first win in 1992, including a gold medal in windsurfing at the 2004 Summer Olympics.[246] Israel has won over 100 gold medals in the Paralympic Games and is ranked about 15th in the all time medal count. The 1968 Summer Paralympics were hosted by Israel.[247]

Warren Buffet

2008-12-02T18:19:00.000-08:00

Warren Buffett
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Warren Buffett

Born August 30, 1930 (1930-08-30) (age 78)
Omaha, Nebraska
Nationality American
Occupation Chairman & CEO, Berkshire Hathaway
Salary US$100,000
Net worth US $62 billion (2008)[1]
Spouse(s) Susan Buffett (1952–2004) (her death),
Astrid Menks (2006-)[2]
Children Susie Buffett,
Howard Graham Buffett,
Peter Buffett
Website
www.berkshirehathaway.com

Warren Edward Buffett (born August 30, 1930) is an American investor, businessman, and philanthropist. He is one of the world's most successful investors and the largest shareholder and CEO of Berkshire Hathaway.[3] He was ranked by Forbes as the richest man in the world during the first half of 2008, with an estimated net worth of $62.0 billion [4].

Often called the "Oracle of Omaha",[5] or "the Sage of Omaha",[6] Buffett is noted for his adherence to the value investing philosophy and for his personal frugality despite his immense wealth.[7] His 2006 annual salary was about $100,000, which is small compared to senior executive remuneration in comparable companies.[8] When Buffett spent $9.7 million[9] of Berkshire's funds on a private jet in 1989, he jokingly named it "The Indefensible" because of his past criticisms of such purchases by other CEOs.[10] He lives in the same house in the central Dundee neighborhood of Omaha that he bought in 1958 for $31,500 and today, it is valued at around $700,000.[11] Buffett also is a notable philanthropist. In 2006, he announced a plan to give away his fortune to charity, with 83% of it going to the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.[12] In 2007, he was listed among Time's 100 Most Influential People in The World.[13] He also serves as a member of the board of trustees at Grinnell College.[14]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Early life and Benjamin Graham
* 2 Political connections
* 3 Writings
* 4 Personal life
* 5 Historical timeline
* 6 Public stances
* 7 Philosophy On Wealth
* 8 Philanthropy
* 9 Buffett and coal
* 10 Suggestions of Financial Failings
* 11 Footnotes
* 12 References
* 13 Further reading
* 14 External links

Early life and Benjamin Graham

Warren Buffett was born in Omaha, Nebraska on 30th August 1930, to Leila (Stahl) and Howard Buffett. As the son of a local stockbroker, it is likely that he was exposed to markets at a very young age.
Benjamin Graham(1894–1976) Benjamin Graham(1894–1976)
Benjamin Graham
(1894–1976)

Phil
Fisher
(1907–2004)

One of his influential mentors was Benjamin Graham. Graham’s philosophy had such an impact on Buffett that he enrolled in Columbia Business School to study directly under him. In Buffett’s own words: “I’m 15 percent Fisher and 85 percent Benjamin Graham”.[15] As Buffett often would say about Graham’s teachings: “The basic ideas of investing are to look at stocks as business, use the market's fluctuations to your advantage, and seek a margin of safety. That’s what Ben Graham taught us. A hundred years from now they will still be the cornerstones of investing”.[16]

Political connections

In addition to other political contributions over the years, Mr. Buffett has formally endorsed and made campaign contributions to Barack Obama's presidential campaign. On July 2, 2008, Mr. Buffett attended a $28,500 per plate fundraiser for Mr. Obama's campaign in Chicago hosted by Mr. Obama's National Finance Chair, Penny Pritzker and her husband, as well as Obama advisor Valerie Jarrett.[17]

During the second 2008 U.S. presidential debate, candidates John McCain and Barack Obama, after being asked first by presidential debate mediator Tom Brokaw, both mentioned Buffett as a possible future Secretary of the Treasury. [18]

Later, in the third and final presidential debate, Obama mentioned Buffett as a potential economic advisor.[citation needed] Buffett was also finance advisor to California Republican Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger during his 2003 election campaign. [19]

Writings

Warren Buffett's writings include his annual reports and various articles. In his article "The Superinvestors of Graham-and-Doddsville", Buffett condemned the academic position that the market was efficient and that beating the S&P 500 was "pure chance" by highlighting a number of students of the Graham and Dodd value investing school of thought. In addition to himself, Buffett named Walter J. Schloss, Tom Knapp, Ed Anderson (Tweedy, Brown Inc.), Bill Ruane (Sequoia Fund, Inc.), Charles Munger, Warren Parkkonen (Speedtroller LLC), Rick Guerin (Pacific Partners, Ltd.), and Stan Perlmeter (Perlmeter Investments) [20]

Personal life

Mr. Buffett married Susan Thompson in 1952. They had three children, Susie, Howard, and Peter. The couple began living separately in 1977, although they remained married until her death in July 2004. Their daughter Susie lives in Omaha and does charitable work through the Susan A. Buffett Foundation and is a national board member of Girls, Inc.

In 2006, on his seventy-sixth birthday, he married his never-married longtime-companion, Astrid Menks, who was then sixty years old. She had lived with him since his wife's departure in 1977 to San Francisco.[21] It was Susan Buffett who arranged for the two to meet before she left Omaha to pursue her singing career. All three were close and holiday cards to friends were signed "Warren, Susie and Astrid".[22] Susan Buffett briefly discussed this relationship in an interview on the Charlie Rose Show shortly before her death, in a rare glimpse into Buffett's personal life.[23]

He remains an avid player of the card game bridge, and has said that he spends twelve hours a week playing the game.[24] He often plays with Bill Gates and Paul Allen.[citation needed]

In 2006, he sponsored a bridge match for the Buffett Cup. Modeled on the Ryder Cup in golf, held immediately before it, and in the same city, a team of twelve bridge players from the United States took on twelve Europeans in the event.

In 2006, he auctioned his 2001 Lincoln Town Car[25] on eBay to raise money for Girls, Inc.[26]

Warren Buffett works with Christopher Webber on an animated series with DiC Entertainment chief Andy Heyward. According to information presented by Buffett at the Berkshire Hathaway annual meeting on May 6, 2006, the series will feature Buffett and Munger in roles and the series will teach children healthy financial habits for life. Cartoon drawings of Buffett and Munger were displayed throughout the events during the weekend as well as in a special animated movie from Heyward, displayed before the meeting.

Buffett has described himself as agnostic when it comes to religious beliefs.

In December 2006 it was reported that Mr. Buffett does not carry a cell phone, does not have a computer at his desk, and drives his own automobile,[27] a Cadillac DTS.[28]

In 2007, he auctioned a luncheon with him that raised a final bid of $650,100 for a charity.[29]

Buffett's DNA report revealed that his paternal ancestors hail from northern Scandinavia, while his maternal ancestors most likely have roots in Iberia or Estonia.[30] Despite widespread suggestions to the contrary, and the casual friendship which has developed between their families, Warren Buffett is no clear relation to the well-known singer Jimmy Buffett.

Historical timeline
Education:

Woodrow Wilson High School, Washington, D.C. in 1947[31]
The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, 1947–1949
B.S. in Economics University of Nebraska, 1950 [32]
M.S. in Economics, Columbia University, in 1951.

Employment:

1951–1954 Buffett-Falk & Co., Omaha - Investment Salesman
1954–1956 Graham-Newman Corp., New York - Securities Analyst
1956–1969 Buffett Partnership, Ltd., Omaha - General Partner
1970–Present Berkshire Hathaway Inc, Omaha - Chairman, CEO

1943: (13 years old)

* Buffett filed his first income tax return, deducting his bicycle and watch as a work expense for $35 for his work as newspaper delivery boy.[33]

1945: (15 years old)

* In his freshman year of high school, Buffett and a friend spent $25 to purchase a used pinball machine, which they placed in a barber shop. Within months, they owned three machines in different locations.

1949: (19 years old)

* In 1949, he was initiated into Alpha Sigma Phi Fraternity while an undergraduate at the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania. His father and uncles also were Alpha Sigma Phi brothers from the chapter at Nebraska, to which Warren eventually transferred.

1950: (20 years old)

* Buffett applied for admission to Harvard Business School, but was turned down.[34]
* Buffett enrolled at Columbia Business School after learning that Benjamin Graham and David Dodd, two well-known securities analysts, taught there.

1951: (21 years old)

* Buffett discovered Graham was on the board of GEICO insurance at the time. After taking a train to Washington, D.C. on a Saturday, Buffett knocked on the door of GEICO's headquarters until a janitor allowed him in. There, he met Lorimer Davidson, the vice president, who was to become a lasting influence on him and life-long friend.[35] They talked for four hours about the insurance business. Davidson recalled that he found Buffett to be an “extraordinary man” after fifteen minutes.
* Buffett was graduated from Columbia and wanted to work on Wall Street. Both his father and Ben Graham urged him not to. Buffett offered to work for Graham for free, but Graham refused.[34] He purchased a Sinclair Texaco gas station as a side investment, but that venture did not work out as well as he had hoped. Meanwhile, he worked as a stockbroker. During that time, Buffett also took a Dale Carnegie public speaking course. Using what he learned, he felt confident enough to teach a night class at the University of Nebraska, "Investment Principles." The average age of the students he taught was more than twice his own.

1952: (22 years old)

* Buffett married Susan Thompson.

1953: (23 years old)

* Susan and Warren Buffett had their first child, Susan Alice Buffett.

1954: (24 years old)

* Benjamin Graham offered Buffett a job at his partnership with a starting salary of $12,000 a year. Here, he worked closely with Walter Schloss.
* Graham, who was a tough man to work for, was adamant that a stock provide a wide margin of safety after weighting the trade-off between its price and intrinsic value. Graham’s demand that a stock be worth more than its price made sense to Buffett, but it also made him question whether the criteria were too stringent, causing them to miss out on some big winners that had more qualitative values.[34]
* Susan and Warren Buffett had their second child, Howard Graham Buffett.

1956: (26 years old)

* Benjamin Graham retired and closed his partnership.
* Buffett's personal savings were now over $140,000.

* Buffett returned home to Omaha and created Buffett Partnership Ltd., an investment partnership.

“ I’ll tell you why I like the cigarette business. It costs a penny to make. Sell it for a dollar. It’s addictive. And there’s fantastic brand loyalty. ”

—Warren Buffett[36][37], 1987

1957: (27 years old)

* Buffett had three partnerships operating the entire year.
* Buffett purchased a five-bedroom stucco house in Omaha, in which he still lives, for $31,500.

1958: (28 years old)

* Susan and Warren Buffett had their third child, Peter Andrew Buffett
* Buffett had five partnerships operating the entire year.

1959: (29 years old)

* Buffett had six partnerships operating the entire year.
* Buffett was introduced to Charlie Munger.

1960: (30 years old)

* Buffett had seven partnerships operating the entire year.
* The partnerships were: Buffett Associates, Buffett Fund, Dacee, Emdee, Glenoff, Mo-Buff, and Underwood.
* Buffett asked one of his partners, a doctor, to find ten other doctors who would be willing to invest $10,000 each in his partnership. Eventually, eleven doctors agreed to invest.

1961: (31 years old)

* Buffett revealed that Sanborn Map Company accounted for 35% of the partnerships' assets.
* Buffett explained that in 1958, Sanborn sold at $45 per share when the value of the Sanborn investment portfolio was $65 per share. This meant buyers valued Sanborn at "minus $20" per share, and buyers were unwilling to pay more than 70 cents on the dollar for an investment portfolio with a map business thrown in for nothing.
* Buffett revealed that he earned a spot on the board of Sanborn.

1962: (32 years old)

* Buffett became a millionaire because Buffett's partnerships, in January 1962, had in excess of $7,178,500 of which over $1,025,000 belonged to Buffett.
* Buffett merged all partnerships into one partnership.
* Buffett discovered a textile manufacturing firm, Berkshire Hathaway. Buffett's partnerships began purchasing shares at $7.60 per share.

1965: (35 years old)

* When Buffett's partnerships aggressively began purchasing Berkshire, they paid $14.86 per share while the company had working capital (current assets minus current liabilities) of $19 per share. This did not include the value of fixed assets (factory and equipment).
* Buffett took control of Berkshire Hathaway at the board meeting and named a new president, Ken Chace, to run the company.

1966: (36 years old)

* Buffett closed the partnership to new money.
* Buffett wrote in his letter “unless it appears that circumstances have changed (under some conditions added capital would improve results) or unless new partners can bring some asset to the partnership other than simply capital, I intend to admit no additional partners to BPL.”
* In a second letter, Buffett announced his first investment in a private business — Hochschild, Kohn and Co, a privately owned Baltimore department store.

1967: (37 years old)

* Berkshire paid out its first and only dividend of 10 cents.

1969: (39 years old)

* Following his most successful year, Buffett liquidated the partnership and transferred their assets to his partners. Among the assets paid out were shares of Berkshire Hathaway.

1970: (40 years old)

* As chairman of Berkshire Hathaway, began writing his now-famous annual letters to shareholders.

1973: (43 years old)

* Berkshire began to acquire stock in the Washington Post Company. Buffett became close friends with Katharine Graham, who controlled the company and its flagship newspaper, and became a member of its board of directors.

1974: (44 years old)

* The SEC opened a formal investigation into Warren Buffett and one of Berkshire's mergers due to possible conflict of interest. Nothing ever came of it.

1977: (47 years old)

* Berkshire indirectly purchased the Buffalo Evening News for $32.5 million. Antitrust charges started.

1979: (49 years old)

* Berkshire began to acquire stock in ABC. With the stock trading at $290 per share, Buffett's net worth neared $140 million. However, he lived solely on his salary of $50,000 per year.
* Berkshire began the year trading at $775 per share, and ended at $1,310. Buffett's net worth reached $620 million, placing him on the Forbes 400 for the first time.

1987: (57 years old)

* Berkshire Hathaway purchased 12% stake in Salomon Inc., making it the largest shareholder and Buffett the director.

1988: (58 years old)

* Buffett began buying stock in Coca-Cola Company, eventually purchasing up to 7 percent of the company for $1.02 billion. It would turn out to be one of Berkshire's most lucrative investments, and one which it still holds.

1990: (60 years old)

* Scandals involving Maurice R. Greenberg and John Gutfreund (former CEO of Salomon Brothers) surfaced.

1999: (69 years old)

* Buffett was named the top money manager of the twentieth century in a survey by the Carson Group, ahead of Peter Lynch and John Templeton.[38]

2002: (72 years old)

* Buffett entered in $11 billion worth of forward contracts to deliver U.S. dollars against other currencies. By April 2006, his total gain on these contracts was over $2 billion.

2004: (73 years old)

* His wife, Susan, died.

2006: (75 years old)

* Buffett announced in June that he gradually would give away 85% of his Berkshire holdings to five foundations in annual gifts of stock, starting in July 2006. The largest contribution would go to the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.[39]

2007: (76 years old)

* In a letter to shareholders, Buffett announced that he was looking for a younger successor, or perhaps successors, to run his investment business.[40] Buffett had previously selected Lou Simpson, who runs investments at Geico, to fill that role. However, Simpson is only six years younger than Buffett.

2008: (77 years old)

* Buffett became the richest man in the world, worth $62 billion according to Forbes,[41] and $58 billion according to Yahoo[42]. Bill Gates had been number 1 on the Forbes list for 15 consecutive years.

Public stances
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* Buffett emphasized the non-productive aspect of gold in 1998 at Harvard: "It gets dug out of the ground in Africa, or someplace. Then we melt it down, dig another hole, bury it again and pay people to stand around guarding it. It has no utility. Anyone watching from Mars would be scratching their head." In 1977 Buffett was also quoted as saying about stocks, gold, farmland, and inflation: "stocks are probably still the best of all the poor alternatives in an era of inflation - at least they are if you buy in at appropriate prices."[43]
* Buffett stated that he only paid 19% of his income for 2006 ($48.1 million) in total federal taxes, while his employees paid 33% of theirs, despite making much less money.[44]
* Buffett believes that the U.S. dollar will lose value in the long run. He views the United States' expanding trade deficit as an alarming trend that will devalue the U.S. dollar and U.S. assets. As a result it is putting a larger portion of ownership of U.S. assets in the hands of foreigners. This induced Buffett to enter the foreign currency market for the first time in 2002. However, he substantially reduced his stake in 2005 as changing interest rates increased the costs of holding currency contracts. Buffett continues to be bearish on the dollar, and says he is looking to make acquisitions of companies which derive a substantial portion of their revenues from outside the United States. Buffett invested in PetroChina Company Limited and in a rare move, posted a commentary[45] on Berkshire Hathaway's website stating why he would not divest from the company despite calls from some activists to do so. (He did, however, sell this stake, apparently for purely financial reasons.)
* Buffett believes that the world is nearing its maximum capacity of oil production and that gradually depleted oil fields could reduce the amount produced.[46]
* Buffett believes government should not be in the business of gambling, believing it to be a tax on ignorance.[47]
* Buffett's speeches are known for mixing business discussions with humor. Each year, Buffett presides over Berkshire Hathaway's annual shareholder meeting in the Qwest Center in Omaha, Nebraska, an event drawing over 20,000 visitors from both United States and abroad, giving it the nickname "Woodstock of Capitalism".[48]
* Berkshire's annual reports and letters to shareholders, prepared by Buffett, frequently receive coverage by the financial media. Buffett's writings are known for containing literary quotes ranging from the Bible to Mae West,[49] as well as Midwestern advice, and numerous jokes. Various websites extol Buffett's virtues while others decry Buffett’s business models or dismiss his investment advice and decisions.
* Buffett favors the inheritance tax, saying that repealing it would be like "choosing the 2020 Olympic team by picking the eldest sons of the gold-medal winners in the 2000 Olympics".[50] In 2007, Buffett testified before the Senate and urged them to preserve the estate tax so as to avoid a plutocracy.
* Buffett has endorsed Barack Obama for president[51] and intimated that John McCain's views on social justice were so far from his own that McCain would need a "lobotomy" for Buffett to change his endorsement.[52]
* Buffett has called the 2007—present downturn in the financial sector "poetic justice".[53]
* In his letter to shareholders in March, 2005, Warren Buffett predicted that in another ten years’ time the net ownership of the U.S. by outsiders would amount to $11 trillion. “Americans … would chafe at the idea of perpetually paying tribute to their creditors and owners abroad. A country that is now aspiring to an ‘ownership society’ will not find happiness in - and I’ll use hyperbole here for emphasis - a 'sharecropping society’.”
* Author Ann Pettifor has adopted the image in her writings and has stated: "He is right. And so the thing we must fear most now, is not just the collapse of banks and investment funds, or of the international financial architecture, but of a 'sharecropper society, angry at its downfall."[54][55][56]

Philosophy On Wealth

From a NY Times article: "I don't believe in dynastic wealth," [Warren Buffett] said, calling those who grow up in wealthy circumstances "members of the lucky sperm club." [57] Buffett has written several times of his belief that, in a market economy, the rich earn outsized rewards for their talents. The following is taken from one of Buffett's articles: "A market economy creates some lopsided payoffs to participants. The right endowment of vocal chords, anatomical structure, physical strength, or mental powers can produce enormous piles of claim checks (stocks, bonds, and other forms of capital) on future national output. Proper selection of ancestors similarly can result in lifetime supplies of such tickets upon birth. If zero real investment returns diverted a bit greater portion of the national output from such stockholders to equally worthy and hardworking citizens lacking jackpot-producing talents, it would seem unlikely to pose such an insult to an equitable world as to risk Divine Intervention. [58]

Philanthropy

In June 2006, Buffett gave approximately 10 million Berkshire Hathaway Class B shares to the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (worth approximately USD 30.7 billion as of 23rd June 2006)[59] making it the largest charitable donation in history and Buffett one of the leaders in the philanthrocapitalism revolution.[60] The foundation will receive 5% of the total donation on an annualised basis each July, beginning in 2006. Buffett also will join the board of directors of the Gates Foundation, although he does not plan to be actively involved in the foundation's investments.[citation needed]

He also announced plans to contribute additional Berkshire stock valued at approximately $6.7 billion to the Susan Thompson Buffett Foundation and to other foundations headed by his three children. This is a significant shift[citation needed] from previous statements Buffett has made, having stated that most of his fortune would pass to his Buffett Foundation.[citation needed] The bulk of the estate of his wife, valued at $2.6 billion, went to that foundation when she died in 2004.[61]

His children will not inherit a significant proportion of his wealth. These actions are consistent with statements he has made in the past indicating his opposition to the transfer of great fortunes from one generation to the next.[62] Buffett once commented, "I want to give my kids just enough so that they would feel that they could do anything, but not so much that they would feel like doing nothing".[63]

The following quotation from 1988, respectively, highlights Warren Buffett's thoughts on his wealth and why he long planned to re-allocate it:

"I don't have a problem with guilt about money. The way I see it is that my money represents an enormous number of claim checks on society. It's like I have these little pieces of paper that I can turn into consumption. If I wanted to, I could hire 10,000 people to do nothing but paint my picture every day for the rest of my life. And the GNP would go up. But the utility of the product would be zilch, and I would be keeping those 10,000 people from doing AIDS research, or teaching, or nursing. I don't do that though. I don't use very many of those claim checks. There's nothing material I want very much. And I'm going to give virtually all of those claim checks to charity when my wife and I die. (Lowe 1997:165–166)

On 27th June 2008, Zhao Danyang, a general manager at Pure Heart China Growth Investment Fund, won the 2008 5-day online "Power Lunch with Warren Buffett" charity auction on eBay with high bid of $2,110,100. Zhao had the right to dine with 76-year-old Buffett, at New York's Smith & Wollensky Steakhouse, and invite up to 7 companions for the private lunch and can ask Buffett anything at all, except what he's buying or selling. Auction proceeds benefit the San Francisco Glide Foundation. In 2007 Mohnish Pabrai dined with Buffett.[64][65]

Buffett also helped Dow Chemical pay for its $18.8 billion takeover of Rohm & Haas. He thus became the single largest shareholder in the enlarged group with his Berkshire Hathaway, which provided $3 billion, underlining his instrumental role during the current crisis in debt and equity markets.[66]

Buffett and coal

In 2007, Buffett's PacifiCorp, a subsidiary of his MidAmerican Energy, cancelled six proposed coal-fired power plants. These included Utah's Intermountain Power Project Unit 3, Jim Bridger Unit 5, and four proposed plants previously included in PacifiCorp's Integrated Resource Plan. The cancellations came in the wake of pressure from regulators and citizen groups, including a petition drive organized by Salt Lake City commercial real estate broker Alexander Lofft and directed at Buffett personally. The 1,600 petitioners, who described themselves in a letter to Buffett as "a collection of citizens, business owners and managers, service professionals, public servants, and organization representatives ... your friends and new customers here in Utah," explained that, in their view, any further expansion of coal generation in Utah would "compromise our health, obscure our viewsheds, shrink and contaminate our watersheds, and thin out our most beloved snowpack," concluding that "our attractiveness as a place to live and work is also threatened, and so is our economic competitiveness as a major metro area and a state, compromising our recent gains in income and property values."[67]

Suggestions of Financial Failings
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While Buffett's record of achieving an above 20% compounding annual return for the last 30 years places Buffet as arguably the most successful investor ever[68] , Buffett ran into criticism [69] during the subprime crisis of 2007-2008 that he has allocated capital too early resulting in suboptimal deals. Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway suffered a 77% drop in earnings during Q3 2008 and several of his recent deals appear to be running into large mark-to-market losses[70]. Berkshire Hathaway acquired 10% perpetual preferred stock of Goldman Sachs at $123 [71] only for it to fall to below $60. Furthermore some of Buffett's Index put options (European exercise at expiry only) that he wrote (sold) are currently running around $6.73 billion mark-to-market losses.[72] The scale of the potential loss prompted the SEC to demand that Berkshire produce, "a more robust disclosure" of factors used to value the contracts.[73]

In addition to suggestions of mistiming, questions have been raised as to the wisdom in keeping some of Berkshire's major holdings including The Coca-Cola Company (NYSE:KO) which in 1998 peaked at $86. Mr. Buffett discussed the difficulties of knowing when to sell in the company's 2004 annual report: "That may seem easy to do when one looks through an always-clean, rear-view mirror. Unfortunately, however, it’s the windshield through which investors must peer, and that glass is invariably fogged."

心衰竭

2008-12-01T19:26:00.000-08:00

心衰竭，簡單的說就是心臟無法供應身體新陳代謝所需的足夠血液量，這種狀態伴隨著有不正常的血液容積增加以及組織間液增加，因此，心臟、靜脈、微血管通常會被血液所擴張，因此亦常稱之為鬱血性心衰竭（Congestive Heart Failure）。它可能是任何心臟疾病最終的表現。一般心衰竭常見的原因有高血壓、瓣膜性心臟病、缺血性心臟病、心肌病變，其他病因有重度貧血、甲狀腺機能亢進等。其中以缺血性心臟病是造成心衰竭最常見的原因之一。根據國外流行病學的調查，心衰竭的盛行率和發生率會隨著年齡增長而增加，50歲成年人其心衰竭的盛行率約為1%，而80歲時則增為8%，國內目前尚無完整的統計資料。

心臟就如同幫浦，可將血液輸送到全身，而心衰竭的產生最主要是因為心臟輸送血液至全身的功能受損，造成心臟輸出的血液量減少，進而堆積於肺部及其他組織，不僅身體各部位血液循環不足，更使得負責氣體交換的肺臟受損，產生缺氧的情形。所以心衰竭的病人會有胸悶、氣喘、下肢水腫等情形。鬱血性心衰竭的症狀簡單可概分為二類：左心室衰竭所造成的肺部鬱血以及右心室衰竭所造成的周圍組織水種。

左心室衰竭時由於血液組織灌流減少，導致衰弱、疲倦。常見左心室擴大及心肌收縮轉弱。另外因左心室衰竭，造成心輸出量減少，腎血流量減少，導致Renin及Angiotensin II增加，造成鈉滯留以及水腫的現象產生。其呼吸短促，肺部囉音的現象，乃是因為肺部血管充血，引起肺水腫及氣管痙攣所造成的。右心室衰竭則常見肝腫大、肝臟觸痛、腹水，主要是因為肝臟充血及肝門脈血壓上升，進而造成腸胃道充血，使病人產生厭食(Anorexic)的症狀。另外亦常因頸靜脈壓上升，導致頸靜脈膨脹(Jugular Venous Distention)。心衰竭的診斷工具包括心電圖、心臟超音波、心導管檢查及核醫檢查等，必須整體評估才能給予確定診斷。因此，若有這方面懷疑時，應與心臟專科醫師討論並接受系列檢查，以確定病況。

心衰竭的病人除了固定接受藥物治療外，平日應維持固定的運動，以及避免食用過多的水分及減少鹽分的攝取，並應養成每日測量體重的習慣，若有突然過重的情形，需和專科醫師討論調整用藥的情形。

07'中秋節之前

2007-09-22T20:06:00.000-07:00

過得似乎太廢了，這兩三周不知道在忙什麼，看paper看得不是很懂，進度又慢，沒事還會上網逛B蝦忙，有時還會搞搞英文字，和看小說。但沒啥心情在用程式了，不知道CSIE_NCKU的進度用得如何，唉唉，我真的是沒啥毅力。ACM用個兩三天就休息兩三個禮拜，搞得進度很慢，唉唉，因為我要做的事情太多啦，一下子這裡用不完，所以把時間都往這裡花，而沒心力用其他方面的事「頭痛醫頭、腳痛醫腳」。應該好好抓一個平横的時候到了！

上網不要大於半小時，把時間花在running上面。no idle！

每天都要小小地寫一下進度表和待辦事項！！長期trace目前的狀態。

開學前的第一篇

2007-09-15T18:52:00.000-07:00

明天是九月十七號，就要開學了。真是頭痛，因為不像暑假這麼自由得可以天天打球了，球隊也不知道能不能加入，課有多重自已也不知道，當助教還要一禮拜meeting三次，and trace code。事情還真多。我自已想要練一下英文，打網球，看英文小說。看GRE的字、嘖嘖，一想到很多事就覺得很頭痛。唉唉，沒錢啦，想要去兼家教呀~~~想要經濟獨立呀~~~~可是又想要打球~~~啊啊，頭痛。

這個暑假過得太爽了，沒讀什麼書。上一本小說都沒看完"Star War"看了一半就拿回去還了，這一次的是assassin apprentice 目前看了120頁。十月三號才要還。媽的，這暑假過得太累了，每天都是打球打到超累，回到家裡吃麵包當晚餐邊看電視，時間一下就過了，晚上沒讀什麼書。回到樓上洗完澡馬上就扑床了QQ
幹。真不應該看電視的，真浪費時間，一點用都沒有。媽的...不過這個月是因為有美網~冏~

幹，我應該要好好計畫一下自已的事情了。

一：練網球。三、四、六、日。

二：meeting、一、四(上午)、五(trace code)

三：七點起床！十二點半之前就上床睡覺，不要看電視了！

四：練coding，每天固定寫兩題，約三小時~~冏！

五：上課！

六：看英文小說！不看電視、看英文novel。

七：固定六、日去逛書店。( 快把夜巡者看完~

八：當助教，玩 linux 指令！！！

九：讀書！

以上！要好好加油！！衝呀！不要浪費時間。時間如鑽石！